The fact that increased prevalence of depression correlates with hormonal changes in women, particularly during puberty, prior to menstruation, following pregnancy and at perimenopause, suggests that female hormonal fluctuations may be a trigger for depression. Nevertheless, primate and rodent studies consistently implicate a role for female hormones, such as estrogen, in depression. Perhaps the most naturalistic depression studies to date to address the role of female hormones involved small groups (n = 4–5) of female macaque primates that formed lifelong social hierarchies with dominant and subordinate females.
The latter showed a depression-like phenotype 16 that has been associated with a brain-wide decrease in serotonin 1A (5-HT1A) receptor levels and pal volume. 17 , 18 Interestingly, the reduced hippocampal volume was more extensive in postmenopausal monkeys than in ovarian-intact monkeys, suggesting that ovarian function may be protective. Consistent with this finding, the risk of depression appears to increase during the perimenopausal transition. 19 Emerging evidence indicates that hormone replacement therapy, particularly during the perimenopausal period, can be effective in the prevention of postmenopausal depression in women. 20 Another study involving female macaques examined relocation stress–sensitive alterations in their menstrual cycles and showed depression-related behaviours and reductions in the function of the brain serotonin system. 21 In this light, a recent study has indicated that women who reported using an oral contraceptive (especially monophasic contraceptives) showed reduced rates of major depression and anxiety compared with nonusers, 22 suggesting that moderating the cycling of estrogen may be protective. Taken together these studies suggest that estrogen may have a protective effect on the pathology that underlies depression and that decreases in estrogen may increase the risk for depression.Why upcoming carry out men, exactly who run out of general the hormone estrogen, provides straight down cost out-of anxiety than just feminine? Accumulating vakre Honduran kvinner studies show that throughout the male mind testosterone is actually turned into the hormone estrogen because of the endogenous aromatase (CYP19). The hormone estrogen you will mediate defensive steps owing to the hormone estrogen receptors indicated about men brain (specifically estrogen receptor ?). 23 At exactly the same time, the current presence of androgen receptors in guys buddy neurons. 24 While the testosterone will not course within the guys since the hormone estrogen really does in females, there is certainly a far more uniform defense inside men. However, guys also provide sexually dimorphic attention nuclei, particularly in brand new hypothalamus, and so the straight down prevalence out of anxiety for the guys is probably alot more advanced owing not only to hormonal differences, and so you’re able to developmental differences in notice circuitry. 23
Society-determined chance products to own anxiety in women likely have a physiological origin, instance differences in real stamina and you may character traits, resulting in a top prevalence out-of depression in women. Perhaps exactly what needs to change was social attitudes to advertise equality; but really, this has been going on on West and contains yielded no obvious improvement in the feminine:men depression proportion. 5 not, not surprisingly complexity, current evidence suggests that physical factors, such as the version inside ovarian hormonal account and particularly decreases in the estrogen, will get subscribe the increased frequency off depression and nervousness from inside the feminine and this ways to decrease decreases in levels of estrogen may end up being defensive. Determining ligands that more especially address the brain (elizabeth.grams., the hormone estrogen receptor-?-choosy ligands) may guard against anxiety but avoid adverse effects away from estrogen treatment. twenty five
